The Middle East Theatre of World War II
Command Structure
- main article Middle East Command
The British Middle East Command was based in Cairo with responsibility not just for British Empire and Commonwealth operations in the Middle East and North Africa, but also East Africa, Persia, and the Balkans, including Greece.
The Commander-in-Chiefs (C-in-C)s were
Overview
The Middle Eastern theatre was quiet for the first few months of the war until Italy's declaration of war in June 1940. The Italian forces in North Africa greatly outnumbered the Allies. Wavell however was able to not only defend against the Italian attacks but to defeat the Italians and occupy their colonies in Ethiopia and Somaliland. By February 1941, Commonwealth forces appeared to be on the verge of overrunning the last Italian forces in Libya, which would have ended Axis control in all of Africa.
But at this same time the Germans and Italians were attacking Greece. Wavell was ordered to halt his advance against Libya and sent troops to Greece. He disagreed with this decision but followed his orders. The result was a disaster. The Germans had an opportunity to reinforce the Italians in North Africa, the Allies were unable to set up an adequate defense on the Greek mainland and were forced to withdraw to Crete with heavy losses, and a pro-Axis faction took over the government of Iraq.
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Balkans and Greek islands campaign
- Main article see Balkans Campaign
The Italians attacked Greece from Albania in late 1940. Not only did the Greeks stop the attack, they forced the Italians back. Eventually, in the spring of 1941, the Germans intervened in Greece. They also invaded Yugoslavia concurrently.
The Greeks had been reluctant to allow Commonwealth ground forces into the country, because Britain could not spare enough forces to guarantee victory. They had, however, accepted aid from the RAF in their war with the Italians in Albania. The trigger for Commonwealth forces moving to Greece in large numbers was the entry of German forces into Bulgaria, which made clear the German intent to invade Greece.
Commonwealth forces took position on a defensive line running from north-west to south-east across the northern part of Greece. However, there were critical weaknesses in the defences. The Greek forces in the area were further forward than the Commonwealth forces, and the Greek Government ignored suggestions that they should withdraw to a common line. The Greek forces were thus defeated in detail. There was also a large gap between the left flank of Commonwealth forces and the right flank of the Greek forces in Albania. That was exploited to the full by the Germans.
After being thrown off the Greek mainland, Commonwealth forces retreated to Crete. There, the Germans again exploited weaknesses in the defences with a bold invasion plan. In the largest and last German airborne assault, paratroops landed at several points on the island and the Battle of Crete began. In all but one location, they were cut off and destroyed, and the follow-on seaborne forces were dispersed by the Allied navies. However, that one location was enough, and reinforcements were flown in to the point where the Germans were strong enough to break out and take the rest of the island.
Command in London eventually decided the cause was hopeless, and ordered a withdrawal from Sfakia. Over the next four nights 16,000 troops were taken off Crete to Egypt. A smaller number was withdrawn on a separate mission from Heraklion, but these ships were attacked en-route by Luftwaffe dive bombers and suffered serious losses. On 1 June the remaining 5,000 defenders at Sfakia surrendered, although many took to the hills and caused the German occupation problems for years.
During the evacuation of Crete Admiral Andrew Cunningham was determined that the "navy must not let the army down", when British generals stated their fears that too many ships would be lost, Cunningham said that "It takes three years to build a ship, it takes three centuries to build a tradition". Nevertheless large numbers of Allied soldiers were taken prisoner on Crete.
East Africa
- Main Article: East African Campaign
Middle East Campaign
- Main article: Middle East Campaign
The Allies were wary of ties between Germany and the regime in Iraq. In early 194 the regime ordered the withdrawal of British bases in Iraq. There were two main British bases in Iraq, around Basra and at Habbaniya north east of Baghdad. British forces in the country and others Allied units, including the Arab Legion, were hastily assembled as Iraqforce , to take control of Iraq. Little resistance was encountered.
Similarly, the Vichy French authorities in Syria and Lebanon had allowed Luftwaffe planes to refuel on their territory. On June 7, 1941, a corps-sized Allied force based in Palestine launched three thrusts into Vichy territory. A vigorous resistance was mounted and the bitter fighting lasted more than a month. However, the weight of numbers eventually told, especially when combined with an advance on Damascus by part of Iraqforce , the French surrendered.
The final major military operation in the war in the Middle East Campaign took place shortly thereafter. The Soviet Union desperately needed supplies for its war against Germany. Supplies were being sent round the North Cape convoy route to Murmansk and Archangel, but the capacity of that route was limited and subject to enemy action. Supplies were also sent from American to Vladivostock in Soviet-flagged ships. However, yet more capacity was needed, the obvious answer was to go through Persia. The Shah of Persia was somewhat pro-German, and so would not allow this. Consequently Commonwealth and Soviet forces invaded and occupied Persia. The Shah was deposed and his son put on the throne.
Western Desert Campaign
- Main article: Western Desert Campaign
After the fall of France and before United States land forces entered the war in Operation Torch, the north African campaign in the Sarah desert and Mediterranean coastal plains of Tunisia, Libya and western Egypt was the major land front between Western Allied and Axis forces.
On September 13th, Italian forces stationed in Libya launched a small invasion into Egypt and set up defensive forts at Sidi Barrani.
Allied forces, though greatly outnumbered, launched the counter-attack Operation Compass. It was more successful than planned and resulted in massive amounts of Italian prisoners and the advance of the Allied forces up to El Agheila . This stunning defeat of Italian forces did not go unnoticed and soon the Deutsches Afrikakorps, commanded by Erwin Rommel, were sent in to reinforce them.
Although ordered to simply hold the line, Rommel launched an offensive from El Agheila which, with the exception of Tobruk, managed to press the Allies beyond Salum, effectively putting both sides back at their approximate original positions.
During the following stalemate, the Allied forces reorganised as the Eighth Army, which was made up of units from the armies of several countries, especially the Australian Army and the Indian Army, but also including divisions from the South African Army, the New Zealand Army and a brigade of Free French under Marie-Pierre Koenig . The new formation launched a new offensive and recaptured almost all of the territory recently acquired by Rommel, failing only to take the garrison forces at Bardia and Salum. Once again, the frontline was at El Agheila.
After receiving supplies from Tripoli, Rommel again attacked. Defeating the Allies at Gazala and capturing Tobruk, he drove them back to the border of Egypt where he was stopped by the First Battle of El Alamein.
At this point General Bernard Montgomery took over as commander of Allied forces in North Africa and, after victory in the battles of Alam Halfa and Second El Alamein, began to the push the Axis forces back, going as far as capturing Tripoli.
After the successful Allied Operation Torch and the advance of the 8th Army in to Tunisia strategic command of the campaign passed from C-in-C Middle East to the Joint Allied Commander of AFHQ.
